Understanding Chiastic Structures for Greater Clarity
John B. Tornfelt
Evangelical School of Theology
Abstract
Although
in ancient Israel psalms were intended to be heard primarily in a linear fashion,
a number of psalms also exhibit a secondary chiastic arrangement (a-b-c-b'-a'). This arrangement was not only aesthetically
pleasing to the audience but it also provided the psalmist with an opportunity
to treat themes twice in a psalm. For example, when a chiastic structure is followed, the unmatched
center (a-b-c-b'-a') is normally the centerpiece of the psalm and where
the central truth is found. Moreover,
a unit from the first half of the psalm can be considered together with its
matching unit in the psalm's second half in order to more fully understand
the theme of the psalmist. By paying attention to chiastic structures, the expositor can
preach from the psalms with greater clarity.
Introduction
When asked why she was so devoted to the psalms, one woman
responded: "You do not love the psalms because you understand them; you
love them because they understand you" (Cooper, 1995, p.85). She was so right! It is one reason why preaching the psalms
offers such promise for pastors who invest their time to search out their
truths. God's voice can be heard.
It is as if the words and phrases come from the heart of God.
You find yourself in conversation with the psalmists. In some instances, you are in agreement
with them while at other times, you are delighted, confused or perhaps, angry.
The psalms
speak about life, not as you might imagine or prefer it to be but as it is
encountered. They are strikingly
realistic and "filled with such images (which) provide a frequent point
of contact with human experience" (Miller, 1986, p.46). Your soul is captured in a peculiar but
wonderful way. You come away
with a sense the psalmist knows more about you than you do!
I appreciate
Howard Baker's perspective about the power of the psalms:
The
psalms rescue us from our fear of facing certain conditions of soul. They rescue us, too, from our fear of
walking through interior confusion or discomfort. The psalms call to us, out of the depths of our human struggle,
to connect with God. Praying
the psalms gives us a well-rounded vocabulary with which to voice the soul's
deepest cries. We can expect
to find grace on this path because God inspired this prayer book for our sake,
and it was the prayer book of Israel, of Jesus and of the early church.
We can move from superficial living into the depths of God's compassion,
and here we meet God heart-to-heart, facing in our happiness and despondency,
truthfulness and lying, integrity and hypocrisy (1998, p.39).
We are to
also preach the psalms because they are a theological book, containing profound
truths about the person of God. Unlike
the historical books, prophets, gospels or the epistles, the psalms are more
like spiritual journals than systematic theologies. As Philip Yancey writes: "They are
not so much representing God to the people as the people representing themselves
to God" (1989, p.29). Nevertheless,
the psalms are no less authoritative, and are able to challenge and guide
in personal and seemingly less structured ways.
But how
are preachers to approach the psalms?
More than a few preachers are not certain. Though this genre is not
intentionally neglected, it is not dealt with as frequently as other types
of biblical literature. Greg
Parsons states: "Yet though the psalms are perennial favorites widely
read for devotional purposes, for counseling and ministering to the sick,
and for public worship, they apparently are rarely preached or taught"
(1990, p.169). But why a hesitancy
since psalms have an ability to "give voice to the furthest corners of
the human heart and offer words of comfort and healing to the deepest wounds,
light to those who walk in shadow?" (Miller, p.21). Walter Kaiser observes: "There is no doubt that the poetical
forms in Scripture will always pose more problems for the exegete than most
sections ever will" (1981, p.230).
One explanation
may be confusion in that the psalms can be difficult to follow.
Though a reader may be inspired by the psalms, the flow of thought
can seem disjointed. The psalmist can appear confused, repeating
himself without apparent reason. At times, you wish the psalmist would just finish off his thoughts!
Though you identify with the psalmist in his feelings and thoughts,
his words remain inconclusive or open-ended.
Consequently, preaching the psalms may seem problematic and you just
as soon look elsewhere for next Sunday's sermon.
Yet Elizabeth
Achtemeier is persuaded there is an ongoing, serious need to preach the psalms.
They are in danger of being lost in our churches.
Achtemeier writes:
We
are in danger of losing the Psalter in our churches; indeed, many have already
lost it, and so it is no accident that many people in our congregations do
not know how to pray. We pray
these days, in unbridled fancy, to almost any kind of god or goddess –
to a great soul of nature, an impersonal power, the projection of our desires. But the psalmists pray to a God with a
very particular, personal character, who has made his person and will and
goal known in the specificities of the holy history. We pray in all sorts of languages – that of street gangs
and feminists, of stuffed shirts and pietists, of nature worshipers and self-idolaters.
The psalmists pray in the utter frankness of the redeemed, the eloquent
passion of the loved, the pained agony of the judged – in short, in
the language of a peculiar people whose life has been set apart, molded, sometimes,
pounded, always wept over and sustained and transformed by a God who has chosen
to dwell in their midst . . what a sermon from the psalms must do is to enable
us to see we are that people – indeed, to enable us by the action of
God through the sermon to become that people.
We not only can preach from the psalms we must preach
from them, for their praises and prayers and piety must become ours as the
people of Jesus Christ (1984, p.443).
Structural
Analyses
Before preaching the psalms, careful exegetical work must
be done. In The Literary Structure
of the Old Testament, David Dorsey proposes
three steps: 1) identification of the constituent units; 2) consideration
of how the units have been arranged; and 3) understanding the relationship
between structure and meaning (1999, pp.16-18). As important as identifying these steps
may be, it can be arduous because of the nature of Hebrew poetry. As a form of literature, poetry is usually
denser or more concentrated than ordinary language. Laurence Perrine understands it as a type
of language that says more with "higher voltage" and "greater
pressure per word" (1977, pp.10-11).
Regarding this compactness, Robert Alter says Hebrew poetry is "a
system of complex linkages of sound, image, word, rhythm, syntax, theme, idea
. . an instrument for conveying densely-patterned meanings, and sometimes
contradictory meanings, that are not readily conveyable through other kinds
of discourse" (1985, p.113).
Similarly, J.P. Fokkelman states:
Poetry
is the most compact and concentrated form of speech possible. By making the most of his
or her linguistic tools, the poet creates an immense richness of meaning,
and this richness becomes available if we as readers know how to handle the
density: how we can cautiously tackle complexity, probe the various layers
one by one, and unfold them (2001, p.15).
Yet as dense as poetry may seem, the psalms emotionally
express "a distinctive, sometimes radically new, sense of time, space,
history, creation, and the character of individual destiny" (Alter, p.114).
Still, it is the preacher's task to find his or her way through these
layers so as to explain their truth to the people of God.
To this end, Thomas Long remarks:
The ways in which the psalms, through their poetic
language, interact with the reader's perception, while complex and densely
layered, are neither magical nor beyond analysis. When the preacher as interpreter
performs a close reading of a psalm, certain poetic devices, characteristic
ways of structuring language to achieve certain effects, begin to surface.
Paying careful attention to these linguistic strategies can reveal to the
exegete not only how the psalm is doing its work, but also much about what
the psalm is seeking to say and to do (1989, p.47).
Constituent Units
When analyzing the structure of an Old Testament book such as the psalms, Dorsey suggests the first step is to determine the constituent units. Ancient writers designed and intentionally structured their literary units for the benefit of their listeners. Today, when analyzing these units, preachers must be careful not to artificially impose their own units on the text but seek to understand the mind of the biblical author.
The constituent
units in some books (i.e. Song of Solomon, Isaiah, Hosea) are difficult to determine
because literary units are not well-marked. (See Dorsey's chapter on Literary Units.) However, the psalms are unique and differ
from most Old Testament books in being comprised of 150 individual units which
are identifiable by titles and superscriptions (Dorsey, p.21).
Arrangements of Literary Units
Dorsey states
the second task in structural analysis is recognizing how the literary units
are arranged by the biblical writer. The most common schemes in the Old Testament literature are
linear, parallel and symmetrical.
Linear
patterns are frequently found in historical books and follow an a-b-c-d-e
arrangement. This sequence is easier for modern listeners
to follow because it is patterned after a narrative or story (i.e. 1 and 2 Kings). Arrangements
can be either chronological (i.e. sequential account) or non-chronological
(i.e. collection of independent but related pieces).
Parallel
patterns are seen in Hebrew poetry with statements juxtaposed in varying
relationships. For centuries, scholars equated such parallelistic
arrangements with poetry. According
to Bernhard Anderson (2000), such poetry had been noted by early commentators
as Josephus, Philo and Augustine but it was Bishop Robert Lowth (1753) who
pointed out the importance of parallelismus membrorum (parallelism
of clauses) and led the way to contemporary studies in literary arrangement.
In Isaiah: A New Translation with a Preliminary Dissertation and
Notes, Lowth commented:
The correspondence of one verse or line with another
I call parallelism. When a proposition
is delivered, and a second is subjoined to it, or drawn under it, equivalent,
or contrasted with it in sense, or similar to it in the form of grammatical
construction; these I call parallel lines; and the words or phrases answering
one to another in the corresponding lines parallel terms (1778, ix).
Following Lowth's groundbreaking work, further research was done exploring how parallelism creates poetic effect. T.H. Robinson developed Lowth's views and affirmed parallelism to be of greater importance than rhythm (1947, p.21). Stephen Geller (1979) supported Lowth while advocating rhythm and strophic structures were also critical in the determination of meaning.
Alter refers to this parallel patterning as a linguistic
phenomenon which promotes the perception of a correspondence between words
and concepts which involves the repetition or substitution of things which
are equivalent on one or more linguistic levels (pp.2-3).
Biblical
scholars such as James Kugel have disagreed with Lowth, perceiving inconsistencies
and contending Lowth understood the matter rather simplistically.
Kugel argues that lines are parallel not because B is meant to be parallel
to A but because B typically supports A, carries
it further, backs it up, completes it, and goes beyond it. Though the difference is slight, it is
an important nuance in explaining why paralleling can appear to be
so inconsistent (1981, p.52). Commenting
on Kugel, S.E. Gillingham says he was "probably right to see parallelism
less as one particular method used by Hebrew poets than as an adaptable rhetorical
device used for 'seconding' or 'closing' poetic units" (1994, p.75). Gillingham also states there is "little
evidence the poet was constrained by particular binary thought-patterns"
(Ibid.) In addition, Adele Berlin
agrees with Kugel in contending it is not parallelism itself which so much
characterizes poetry but the preponderance of the parallelism. In other words, parallelism is not the
defining characteristic of poetry though there is a significant amount of
parallel structures. As Berlin
states parallelism "appears to be the constructive principle on which
a poem is built" (1985, p.6).
Regardless
of such differences, parallelism is the most obvious trait of Old Testament
poetry. Kaiser emphasizes Lowth's
understanding has never been superseded.
He writes: "From Lowth's day to this, it has never been seriously
questioned that parallelism, as he defined it, is the dominant stylistic feature
of poetry in the Old Testament" (p.212). Tremper Longman says it is not simply a literary ornament but
the key to unlocking the depth of expressions found within the psalms (1997,
pp.132-133). However such parallelisms
are not as easy to perceive as linear arrangements because listeners have
to remember earlier points to catch the repetition. Yet as Dorsey states, parallel patterns
have several advantages with one being repetitiveness making it easier for
speakers and listeners to remember.
Repetitiveness also provides an opportunity to compare, contrast, reiterate,
emphasize and illustrate particular ideas. Though parallel patterns vary, authors used them to engagingly
make their points (pp.26-32).
But what is the purpose of parallelism? Why is it employed when an idea can be
expressed once and clearly understood?
Is it not being redundant? Fokkelman
asks if it isn't primitive? Responding to his own query, he says modern man's questioning
smacks of intellectualism and a Western world sense of superiority.
This attitude is incorrect and "can be weeded out only if we take
the poetic aspect of poetry seriously and cease to make it subservient to
historiography, theology, or other disciplines that feel slightly uncomfortable
with literature" (p.73).
Fokkelman uses the metaphor of binoculars to express the
value of parallelism. Individuals
have the advantage of seeing "in stereo." Parallelism creates two separate images which can be superimposed
and offer two opportunities for a biblical truth to become evident.
He states: "Only those who look closely and have patience will
discover and savor the role played by dissimilarity, its surprises, and its
richness of meaning" (pp.78-79).
Fokkelman's position is similar to Kaiser's who emphasizes a semantic
parallelism which is a parallelism of meaning, not simply form.
It was the intention of the psalmists to emphasize thought in their
poetry rather than the grammatical structuring (p.219).
Such parallel patterning is characterized by an a-b-c // a'-b'-c' arrangement
which can be synonymous or antithetical.
In synonymous
parallelism, the second line repeats the idea of the opening line without
significant addition or subtraction.
Psalm 25:1-2 follows this pattern:
a
to you, O Lord, I lift up my soul
a' in
you I trust, O my God
b
do not me be put to shame
b' nor
let my enemies triumph over me
Similarly,
Psalm 27:1 demonstrates synonymous parallelism but in an alternating arrangement:
a
the Lord is my light and my salvation
b
whom shall I fear?
a'
the Lord is the stronghold of my life
b'
of whom shall I be afraid?
With antithetical
parallelism, the second line contrasts or negates the thought of the first
line. In Psalm 20:7-8 we find this
pattern:
a
some trust in chariots and some in horses
b
but we trust in the name of the Lord our God
a'
they are brought to their knees and fall
b' but
we rise up and stand firm.
Symmetrical
parallelism has a common arrangement of (a-b-b'- a' or a-b-c-c'-b'-a')
and features two sets of constituent units in which the secondary unit matches
in the reverse order (echoes or mirrors) the previous unit, demonstrating
coherence and completeness. Psalm
22:22 exemplifies such an arrangement:
a
I will declare your name
b
to my brothers
b' in
the congregation
a' I
will praise you
The above
examples are characterized by one-to-one correspondence or even parallelism.
However, arrangements can be uneven where an unmatched central unit
(a-b-a' or a-b-c-b'-a') connects or links together the constituent
sets in verses or within the entire psalm (Dorsey, 30).
Psalm 102:1-2 demonstrates such an arrangement:
a
hear my prayer
b
O Lord let my cry for help come to you
c
do not hide your face when I am in distress
b' turn
your ear to me when I call
a'
answer me quickly
Regardless of the type of symmetry, these arrangements
are characterized by repetition and provide order, balance and a sense of
stability to the psalms.
Structure and Meaning
A third step is to consider the impact of structure on
a poem's meaning. Biblical authors
used structure to intensify their ideas.
Jerome Walsh writes: "The 'meaning' of a work of literature is
communicated as much by the structure of the work as by surface 'content'"
(1997, p.351). Shimon Bar-Efrat
offers a similar comment: "Structure has rhetorical and expressive value:
it is one of the factors governing the effect of the work on the reader and
in addition it serves to express or accentuate meaning (1980, p.172).
Linear structures are found in Exodus where Moses used a chronological arrangement to follow
the history of Israel. This straightforward
structure was used to trace the Israelites' escape from Egypt and their protracted
journey through the wilderness of Sinai. Similarly in contemporary literature,
the core idea or most important event is often situated toward the end of
the account.
Structured repetitions, parallel (a-b-c-a'-b'-c') and symmetric (a-b-c-c'-b'-a'),
are other literary forms intentionally utilized by the biblical writers. According to H. Van Dyke Parunak, one
reason is that biblical literature is "essentially aural . . intended
to be understood with the ear, and not with the eye (1982, p.2). Commenting on Parunak, Sidney Greidanus
writes:
Whereas
modern authors can give clues to their intended meaning by emphasizing words
and phrases with italics or bold print and de-emphasizing items with parentheses
or with placement in footnotes or appendices, ancient authors did not have
that graphic dimension at their disposal. Hence both with respect to indicating the limits of a literary
unit as well as giving clues to its intended meaning, ancient authors were
dependent on other than modern, graphic techniques. Since their techniques had to be perceived
aurally, they consisted primarily of structural patterns that could be sensed
by ears attuned to those patterns (1988, p.60).
Second, structured repetitions enabled a writer to make
a lasting impact with the positioning of his words. Rather than the conclusion being the prominent position, the
center of the psalm can be a
more natural location. Whether
there is an "unmatched" unit in the parallelism or a balanced symmetrical
scheme, the central unit is used as the climax or turning point.
Third, matching units surrounding this center were intentionally
developed by Hebrew writers to emphasize their ideas. These units contained ideas which elaborated
on the prominent thought. The
matching units were designed to highlight, compare, contrast, elaborate, reverse,
reciprocate or resolve. In so doing, psalmists were able to reinforce ideas without
explicitly restating them (Ibid., pp.37-39).
Chiastic Structures
One feature of parallelism in a number of psalms is the
chiasm, a term from the Greek word chiazein
which consists of "a placing crosswise" of words. According to Nils Lund, the term is "used
in rhetoric to designate an inversion of the order of words or phrase which
are repeated or subsequently referred to in the sentence" (31). John Welch states that chiasm means to
"mark with two lines crossing like a X (chi)" (1981, pp.154-155). Greidanus states that if the two mirrored
halves of a simple chiastic structure are placed one under the other and lines
drawn connecting the corresponding elements, the lines form a shape resembling
the capital Greek letter X (p.62).
a
b
b'
a'
Other definitions of chiastic structures have been suggested.
Robert Alden describes a chiasm as the inversion of the order of words
in two corresponding parallel phrases (1974, p.12).
Kaiser understands a chiasm as an inversion of parallel terms in successive
lines so that lines 1 and 4 correspond
to each other as do 2 and 3 (p.225).
According to Longman, chiasms are the most interesting and frequently
encountered categories of parallelism (1988, p.101). Yelland views a chiasm as "a passage in which the second
part is inverted and balanced against the first . . a type of antithesis"
(1950, p.32).
Psalm 1 is an example of a chiasm in which a,b is followed by antithetical statements in b',a':
a righteous will keep themselves separate from the wicked (vv.1-2)
b secure and fruitful state of the righteous (v.3)
b' insecure and barren state of the wicked (v.4)
a'
wicked will be kept separate from the righteous (vv.5-6)
But what is the purpose of chiastic arrangements? C. Hassell Bullock contends a biblical
writer can call attention to ideas that were at the core of his thoughts by
the manner in which he structures them in his poetry (2001, p.43). According to Greidanus, the purpose of
chiasms is "to reveal the theme of a passage because it focuses on the
pivotal thought around which the passage turns" (p.64). Parunak's understanding is similar.
"Chiastic structures frequently have a unique center item . .
(its) location makes it suitable for emphasizing whatever is placed there
. . to focus the reader's (or hearer's) attention on the item of interest"
(1981, p.165).
Regarding chiasms, Welch states:
As
the structure expands in number of elements, the abrupt repetition by which
the last elements of the first of the system become the first elements of
the second half can draw unusual attention to the central terms, which are
repeated in close proximity to each other.
An emphatic focus on the center can be employed by a skillful composer
to elevate the importance of a central concept or to dramatize a radical shift
of events at the turning-point. Meanwhile,
the remainder of the system can be used . . as a framework through which the
author can compare, contrast, juxtapose, complement, or complete each of the
flanking elements in the chiastic system (1981, p.10).
Regardless
of the terms used (i.e. core thought, emphatic focus, theme or unique center), Bullock, Greidanus,
Parunak and Welch understand chiastic structures to be so designed that the
central truth is conspicuously situated in the middle of the arrangement.
Three-Part
Symmetries
Four-Part Symmetries
Four-part arrangements are more common in the Hebrew Psalter.
These chiastic arrangements allowed the biblical writer to repetitively
match units for literary emphasis.
Psalm
2
a
frightening counsel of kings who plot against the Lord and his anointed
(vv.1-3)
·
"kings of the earth take their
stand . . against the Lord"
b
statement by God of his selection of the king (vv.4-6)
·
"I have installed my King on Zion"
b' statement by the king of his selection by God (vv.7-9)
·
"I will proclaim the decree of the Lord"
a' joyful
counsel for these helpless kings to serve God (vv.10-12)
·
"kings, rulers of the earth .
. serve the Lord"
Psalm 2
deals with the reversal of fortunes between some pagan kings and the king
of Israel. In vv.1-3 (a)
there is a plotting by the kings against God and his people while in vv.10-12
(a'), there is a significant turn of events
with these kings now being commanded to serve the Lord. In the central units (b, b'), statements
are about how the Lord thwarted their plans. In vv.4-6, the psalmist offers words from
God's perspective while the king's viewpoint is stated in vv.7-9.
Five-Part Symmetries
Similar to three-part symmetric arrangement, five-part
chiasms allowed the psalmist to focus on his central idea and highlight it
with the surrounding matched repetitions.
Psalm 22
a initial complaint (vv.1-8)
·
"forsaken me"
·
"so far from saving me"
·
"do not answer"
b plea for help (vv.9-11)
· "do not be far"
· "there is no one to help"
c description of a dreadful situation (vv.12-18)
·
"surrounded . . poured out like water
. . bones out of joint . . heart has turned to wax . . strength is dried up
. . people stare/gloat . . divide my garments"
b' plea for help (vv.19-21)
·
"be not far"
·
"help me"
a' concluding praise (vv.22-31)
· "has not despised or disdained the suffering"
· "has not hidden his face"
·
"listened to his cry for help"
This psalm
is David's prayer for deliverance as he encounters strong enemies and major
illness. David effectively used
repetition is this chiastic arrangement to emphasize his situation. Repetition was antithetical (a,a') where
David poured out his complaint against God (vv.1-8) and his praise for God's
deliverance (vv.22-31). Yet his
appeals in vv.9-11 and vv.19-21 (b,b') are synonymous ("be not far
. . help"). Verses 12-18 (c) are at the center of
the prayer and highlight the desperate situation in which David has found
himself. This position of his
plight serves to accentuate the terrifying conditions.
Six-Part
Symmetries
Like a four-part chiasm, this symmetrical
arrangement does not offer an uneven central position but allows for the reiteration
of points through the repeating of matching points.
Psalm 115
a
call to praise (v.1)
·
"to your name be the glory"
b
taunt of the nations (vv.2-3)
·
"Where is their God? . . Our God is in heaven"
c
pagan's trust is in idols (vv.4-8)
·
" . . trust in them"
c' Israel's
trust is in the Lord (vv.9-11)
·
" . . trust in the Lord"
b' response
to the taunt (vv.12-16)
·
"Maker of heaven and earth
. . highest heavens belong to the Lord"
a' call
to praise (vv.17-18)
·
"We extol the Lord"
Psalm 115
contrasts God and the useless idols of unbelieving nations. In the central units (c,c'), the psalmist
compares the nature of the trust of the two groups (vv.4-8 and vv.9-11). Though the Israelites have been taunted
by pagan nations in vv.2-3(b), God responds in vv.12-16 (b) to such taunts
and protects his people. The
psalm is bracketed (vv.1 and vv.17-18) with respective calls to praise and
extol the Lord (a,a').
Seven-Part Symmetries
The most common parallel pattern is the seven-part scheme
in which the center will function as a climax, high point, or resolution (Dorsey,
p.30). Seven-part symmetries
are like three-part and five-part chiasms with uneven symmetrical arrangements.
The central truth is surrounded by matched repetitions which emphasize
this pivotal idea.
Psalm 30
a promise to praise (v.1)
·
"I will exalt you . . for you lifted
me out of the depths . . did not let my enemies gloat"
b
appeal and rescue by God (vv.2-3)
·
"called to you . . from going
down into the pit"
c
statement on the favor of God (vv.4-5)
·
". . his favor lasts for a
lifetime"
d confidence in the Lord (v.6)
·
"I will never be shaken"
c' statement
on the favor of God (v.7)
·
" . . when you favored me"
b'
report of appeal and rescue of God (vv.8-10)
·
"I called to the Lord . . if
I go down into the pit?"
a' promise to praise (vv.11-12)
·
"I will give you thanks forever"
Psalm 30
focuses on the psalmist's confidence in God (v.6). The psalmist appeals to God to rescue him in vv.2-3 and vv.8-10
(b,b'), and God responded favorably in vv.4-5 and v.7 (c,c'). God's intervening action has prompted
David to promise the Lord (a) that he will continue to offer praise to him
(v.1), a promise which is then echoed in vv.11-12 (a').
Preaching the Chiastic Psalms
Based on an awareness and understandings of chiastic psalms,
how might preachers proceed in crafting their sermons? In principle, the sermonic procedure should
be similar to that of other literary forms in which careful investigative
research is accomplished, an exegetical central truth stated, outlines are
created, a preaching central truth is formed, illustrations and applications
developed, and a manuscript is written.
When crafting a sermon from a chiastic psalm, several issues
need particular consideration. One
issue pertains to understanding the psalms as whole literary units.
In Biblical Preaching Haddon Robinson writes: "In poetic literature
such as the Psalms, a paragraph roughly equals a stanza or strophe (unit) of a poem. While
at times we may choose to expound only a single stanza, normally we will treat
the entire psalm. In selecting
passages for the expository sermon, therefore, a general principle to follow
is this: Base the sermon on a literary unity of thought (2001, p.55).
As previously stated, Bullock, Dorsey, Greidanus, Parunak
and Welch support the idea that chiastic structures are designed so that the
major idea of the psalm is conspicuously situated in the middle of the arrangement.
Chiastic units have a unique center, intentionally designed by the
psalmist, to be the focus of their attention.
From the chiastic structuring, you can discover the central truth of
the sermon. But as in all effective preaching, you
still need to work at stating this central truth in a way which will be memorable
for listeners.
Second, understanding the parallel structures of psalms
does not necessarily mean all sermons should contain parallelism. Understanding the structures is an exegetical
tool which does not need to be carried into the pulpit. However, preachers benefit by attending
to such structures, being certain their sermons reflect the chiastic arrangement
as purposed by the biblical writer. Thomas Long states:
.
. the preacher must pay attention in interpreting the psalm to the ways in
which the psalmist, through parallelism, unfolds and nuances the central ideas
and images around which the psalm is built. The effect of parallelism on the reader is that those ideas
and images begin to take on life in her or his imagination. The sermon should seek to create a similar
effect for hearers, even if the rhetorical strategies employed are quite different
(pp.49-50).
Third, determine where to place the central truth. This key thought can be variously positioned,
depending on how you plan to develop the sermon. (According to Robinson, arrangements can
be deductive, inductive, inductive-deductive, and subject-completed. See Chapter Six in Biblical Preaching
for further explanation on shaping sermons and placing central truths.)
In a deductive approach, the
central truth is placed in the introduction or first major point of the sermon
with specific life applications being provided. The sermon is developed in a clear, linear way with sub-points
proving, supporting or applying this central truth. If you prefer to approach a psalm inductively, then life experiences
may be your starting point from which you move into a psalm, waiting until
the conclusion to offer the central truth. Since the psalms are filled with experiential
feelings and thoughts, there is an abundance of fertile ground for the preacher
to develop before offering a central truth. With the inductive-deductive approach, the central truth is
not expressed until the middle of the sermon. As in the inductive approach, there are ideas and images contained
within each psalm with which to creatively surround the central truth.
Finally, there is the semi-inductive arrangement in which the subject
of the central idea needs to be completed.
Commonly used by preachers, this approach can be used but as in any
sermon, communicators must guard against imposing their thoughts upon those
of the psalmists.
The following examples are offered as possible approaches
in preaching the chiastic psalms. For
each psalm, I have offered the chiastic arrangement, exegetical central truth,
preaching outline which includes a preaching central truth (CT) and transitional
statements. Other sermon arrangements
are possible (perhaps even, preferred!) but I propose four examples for consideration.
Three-part chiasm
Psalm 57
Prior to becoming king of Israel, David had a difficult
relationship with the reigning King Saul.
Though David sought to honor Saul, the troubled king was jealously
in pursuit of him. When David
had opportunity to put an end to his difficulties and kill Saul while in the
cave of En-gedi, he acted honorably.
He could not bring himself to harm God's anointed leader. Subsequently, Psalm 57 is David's heartfelt
plea for God to intervene in this ongoing and stressful situation.
Chiastic arrangement:
a plea for God to help (vv.1-5)
·
prayer: "He sends from heaven
and saves me . . his love and his faithfulness"
·
refrain: "be exalted, O God, above
the heavens; let your glory be over all the earth"
b report of deliverance (v.6)
· "spread a net . . dug a pit . . fallen into it themselves"
a' praise to God for his help (vv.7-11)
·
prayer: "love . . reaching to
the heavens . . faithfulness reaches to the skies"
·
refrain: "be exalted, O God, above
the heavens; let your glory be over all the earth"
Exegetical central truth:
The central truth of this chiasm
can be found in v.6 and refers to God's deliverance of David from his foes.
This central truth may be stated: "Though enemies had maliciously
set a trap for David, they had fallen into the trap of themselves."
Preaching outline: deductive arrangement
Though the exegetical outline
is an a-b-a' arrangement, the psalm can be rearranged for preaching purposes into a b-a-a' sequence.
With such a deductive arrangement,
the preaching central truth is stated in the Introduction where David
speaks of enemies plotting but being foiled as God reversed their schemes. In Point I, the character and intervening
ways of God are described. Point
II in the preaching outline is a chiastic echo of Point I which offers words
of gratitude based upon God's faithful intervention.
"God can bring about a reversal of what may seem to be the inevitable." (CT) (v.6)
("We get a picture of this truth from David as he was surrounded.")
I. When surrounded by your enemies, cry out to God for help. (vv.1-5)
A. You can cry out for mercy to the God who faithfully keeps his promises.
B. God will respond in love and faithfulness to your pleas.
C. When matters are still unresolved, praise remains an appropriate act.
("But let's not forget how God has a way of stepping into our situations.")
II. When your enemies are defeated, remember to thank God for his help. (vv.7-12)
A. You can praise God who is faithful in keeping his promises.
B. In love and faithfulness, God responds to your pleas.
C. When
God has resolved matters, continue with your praise.
Four-part symmetry
Psalm 3
This psalm is David's response as he is fleeing from his
son Absalom who is usurping power. Statements
are made about his plight in (vv.1-2) which are balanced by his appeals in
vv.7-8. In response to their
taunts, David is trustful and confident, emphatically insisting that God will
bring about his deliverance (v.9).
Chiastic Arrangement:
a (foes) enemies have arisen (vv.1-2)
·
"many are my foes . . many have
risen against me"
· "God will not deliver him"
b statements of trust (vv.3-4)
·
"shield around me . . lifts up my head"
· "cry aloud . . answers from his holy hill"
b' statements of confidence (vv.5-6)
·
"sustains me"
·
"will not fear"
a' Lord . . arise (vv.7-8)
·
"Arise, O Lord! . . you have
struck all my enemies"
· "Deliver me, O my God"
The central truth is found in
the synonymous parallel statements of trust and confidence in vv.3-6. With enemies surrounding him, David realizes
his plight and is concerned for his own safety. The central truth can be stated: "When
surrounded by his enemies, David is not fearful because God had already surrounded
him."
Preaching Outline: inductive arrangement
The preaching outline is structured
inductively to highlight the intense feelings expressed in vv.1-2 and vv.7-8.
Point I deals with the reality of foes who mock God and taunt us. We await God's release from such opposition (a,a'). The central truth is not stated until
the end of Point II (vv.3-6) (b,b') when David offers some foundational theological
truths.
I. You may feel surrounded by people who are against you. (vv.1-2 and vv.7-8)
A. Your foes in life can be many.
B. Opponents can cause you to fear when they tauntingly claim that God will not intervene.
C. You want God to arise and help you get out of your difficult situation(s).
("We overhear David as he makes statements of trust and confidence.")
II. When surrounded by opposition, thinking about God is the place to start. (vv.3-6)
A. God is someone you can trust.
·
shield of protection around me . . lifts up
my head
· cry aloud . . answers from his holy hill
B. You can be confident.
·
sustains me
·
struck all my enemies
·
Arise, O Lord!
· Deliver me, O my God
"When surrounded by your
enemies, remember that God was the first one to surround you." (CT)
Five-part chiasm
Psalm 51
This penitential
psalm emphasizes David's plea for forgiveness (vv.6-12) and is highlighted
in v.9 (c) where he beseeches God to "hide your face from my sins
and blot out all my iniquity." The matching
units in vv.1-2 and vv.16-17(a,a') offer complementary grounds for forgiveness
and restoration. Another set
of matching units is seen in vv.3-5 and vv.13-15 (b,b') which balance David's
confession with a vow to continue to speak of the Lord's ways.
(Psalm 51 concludes with an addendum in vv.18-19 which probably was
added at some later date to correct an impression that sacrifices were still
necessary for forgiveness.)
Chiastic
Arrangement:
a
basis for requesting forgiveness (vv.1-2)
·
"mercy . . unfailing love . . compassion"
·
"wash . . cleanse"
b
confession of transgression and sins (vv.3-5)
·
"know my transgressions . . my sin"
c
prayer for cleansing and restoration (vv.6-12)
·
"cleanse me . . wash me"
·
"hide
your face from my sins . . blot out all my iniquity"
·
"create in me a pure heart"
·
"renew a steadfast spirit"
·
"restore to me the joy of your salvation"
b'
vow to confess God's ways to transgressors and sinners (vv.13-15)
·
"teach transgressors your ways . . sinners
will turn back"
a'
basis for forgiveness (vv.16-17)
·
"not delight in sacrifice . . burnt
offerings"
·
"broken spirit . . broken and contrite
heart"
Exegetical Central Truth:
The central truth for Psalm 51
is: "After recognizing the depth of his sin and iniquity, David asked
God to cleanse him, renew his heart, and restore the joy of salvation."
Preaching Outline: inductive-deductive arrangement
The preaching outline is inductively-deductively
arranged to focus on David's request for God's cleansing and restoration (vv.6-12).
Though your listeners may have not been involved in adulterous relationships
as David was with Bathsheba, everyone has violated God's principles (and tried
to conceal it). After introducing
the background material, Point I emphasizes the theological basis for a renewed
relationship with God (vv.1-2). Point II exemplifies the deep confession
by David of his waywardness.
Point III is the turning point
as David pleads for God to make him clean.
After being on the run for so long, people need to know that they can
start over and how the Lord deeply desires it for them. The confession of Point II is echoed in
Point IV although in these verses (vv.13-15), it is more a vow to speak out
and offer hope to individuals still needing godly restoration. The preaching outline concludes with Point
V (vv.16-17) where David mirrors his initial thoughts of the need to acknowledge
sin with broken spirits and hearts of contrition.
(Since vv.18-19 is an addendum,
it is not necessary to preach. It
is uncertain as to its contribution to the psalm. Still, it could be acknowledged in the presentation.)
I. Your God welcomes your return. (vv.1-2)
A. God is merciful, loving and compassionate.
B. God makes you clean in his sight
("But there is more to forgiveness than understanding the nature of God.")
II. You need to acknowledge how you have turned against the Lord. (vv.3-5)
A. You are naturally inclined to go against God's ways.
B. You violate God's purposes by choice.
("But God has some very good news for you.")
III. "Regardless
of how wrong your life has been, it is never too late to come clean
and start over." (CT) (vv.6-12)
A. You can plea for forgiveness.
·
cleanse and wash me
·
hide your face from my sins
·
blot out all my iniquity
B. You can ask God to renew in your life.
·
create in me a pure heart
·
renew a steadfast spirit
·
restore to me the joy of salvation
("Yet there is more to your pleas and requests, and it is in your desires.")
IV. You vow to see others turn back to the Lord. (vv.13-15)
A. You desire to let others know there is a way back.
B. You hope to see people choose God's purposes.
("One final thought regarding your starting over.")
V. Your God is welcoming you
back. (vv.16-17)
A. God is not interested in your sacrifices.
B. God is looking for hearts that are broken and contrite.
Seven-part chiasm:
Psalm 18
David is
celebrating God for his deliverance in the face of opposition. The opening unit of praise (vv.1-3) is
mirrored by the closing unit in vv.46-50 (a,a'). There is a matching unit in vv.4-19 and vv.33-36 (b,b') where
God sensationally rescues David from his enemies and then how David turns
around to defeat these foes. There
are also matching units in vv.20-24 and vv.31-32 (c,c') which speak of the
psalmist's blameless character and the blamelessness of God. The highlight of the psalm is in vv.25-29
(d) where David emphatically gives God the credit for the victory. This attribution leads David to
offer the psalm's central truth of how God exalts the humble but humbles the
proud.
Chiastic
Arrangement:
a praise (vv.1-3)
·
"my rock . . my salvation"
·
"deliverer . . saved from my enemies"
b
God's rescue of the psalmist from enemies (vv.4-19)
·
"I called to the Lord . . I cried
to my God for help . . he heard my voice"
·
"shot his arrows and scattered the
enemy . . bolts of lightning routed them"
·
"Lord was . . my support"
·
"brought me into a spacious place"
·
"rescued me from my powerful
enemy . . foes who were too strong for me"
c God helps the psalmist because he was blameless (vv.20-24)
·
"I have kept the ways of the Lord . .
not done evil"
·
"laws are before me"
d
God exalts the humble but humbles the proud (vv.25-29)
·
"save the humble"
·
"bring low . . haughty"
·
"turn darkness into light"
·
"with my God I can scale a wall"
c' God
is blameless and helps those who turn to Him (vv.30-31)
·
"his way . . is perfect"
·
"word of the Lord is flawless"
b' psalmist's
defeat of his enemies (vv.32-45)
·
"they cried but there was no
one to save them"
·
"shield of victory . . "
·
"right hand sustains me . .
stoop down to make me great"
·
"broaden the path beneath me"
·
"pursued my enemies and overtook
them . . did not turn back until destroyed"
a'
closing praise (vv.46-50)
·
" .
. my rock . . my Savior"
·
"Savior . . saves me from my enemies"
Exegetical Central Truth:
The central truth is: "God
humbles the proud when they are exalting themselves but God exalts the humble
when they are not proud."
Preaching Outline: subject-completed arrangement
This outline has a subject-completed
(semi-inductive) arrangement in which the subject (but not necessarily the
complete central truth) is stated in the sermon's introduction. This subject is then followed by several
points which complete the subject. This type of sermon is "stitched" by a key word or
phrase (i.e. characteristics) which
coordinate or link the major points.
In this preaching outline, that phrase is: "If you are humble
. . "
The sermon's central truth can
be stated in the introduction (i.e.
"God humbles the proud when they exalt themselves, and exalts the lowly
as they humble themselves." However
it is a transitional statement-question which points both the preacher and
listeners into the rest of the sermon and leads to answering the statement-question,
"What are some of the characteristics of a person who is humble?"
"God humbles the proud when they exalt themselves, and exalts the lowly as they humble themselves." (CT) (v.27)
I.
If you are humble, you won't
have illusions about yourself. (vv.1-3 and vv.46-50)
A.
God is your rock and refuge.
B.
God is your Savior.
("There is more to claiming God
as your rock but your defender.")
II.
If you are humble, you know
who is on your side. (vv.4-19 and vv.32-45)
A.
God hears your cry for help.
B.
God scatters the enemy, supports,
and rescues you from the enemy.
C.
God sustains you, widens
the path, and overtakes the enemy.
("There is a third characteristic
of someone who is humble.")
III.
If you are humble, you will
strive to walk blamelessly. (vv.20-24 and vv.30-31)
A. God's ways are being kept, evil is shunned.
B.
God is blameless, his ways are perfect.
Conclusion
The psalms offer challenges and opportunities for every
preacher. Communicators of the
Word dare not neglect them because they have the ability to say to anyone
who reads and mediates on them, "He's talking about me!" In their unique and complex way, the psalms
speak not only the truth about God but the truth about life. In a simple yet penetrating manner, this
genre reveals the person of God as well as the dreams, hopes and fears of
our lives.
Preaching based on an awareness of the chiastic structures of the psalms can be a delight. Though the preparatory process is similar to preaching narratives, prophecies and epistles, there are complexities inherent to chiastic psalms. Communicators must be knowledgeable of their peculiarities if their sermons are to be faithful to the ancient text. But for individuals who invest their energies, the psalms prove to be a remarkable source of wisdom. Hopefully, this paper provides insights and guidelines which preachers will utilize in their proclamation.
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